Horse Science
HORS 1110 - Introduction to Horse Care and Use
3 credit hours
Survey of basic equine care, breeds, use, management, and behavior.
HORS 2110 - Basic Horsemanship
1 credit hour
Preparation and orientation for students interested in taking horse science courses with an animal handling component. Topics include facility safety, horse control and handling, grooming, saddling, daily care considerations, and facility maintenance. Lecture and one two-hour laboratory each week.
NOTE: For Horse Science majors, Animal Science majors, Agriculture minors, or permission of instructor.
HORS 2400 - Fundamentals of Horsemanship
3 credit hours
Behavior, philosophy, and language for communicating with and influencing the equine athlete. Develops basic control skills, balance and coordination, gaits; use of equipment; understanding equestrian competition. Two-hour lecture and two-hour laboratory each week.
HORS 2480 - Equine Evaluation and Selection
3 credit hours
Individual parts, conformation, and gaits of the horse as they relate to selecting and judging horses for production, recreation, and sport.
HORS 3040 - Stable Management
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 2400 or approval of instructor. Business aspects of horse facility management and ownership emphasized. Practical approaches to management of horses and responsible horse ownership also covered. Lecture/lab.
HORS 3300 - Equine Health
3 credit hours
Familiarizes students with normal physiologic parameters and how to recognize and deal with health issues of horses. Topics include care of the pregnant broodmare, foal care, routine health maintenance, infectious diseases, commonly used medications, dentistry, lameness, neurological diseases, colic, parasites, ophthalmology, dermatology, reproduction, geriatrics, and alternative therapies. Lecture/lab.
HORS 3400 - Horsemanship-Equitation
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 2400 and approval of instructor. Understanding, recognizing, and producing lateral control in the horse. Lateral exercises; lateral movements; developing lateral balance and control, track, gait, pace, impulsion, and rhythm. Two hour lecture and two-hour laboratory each week.
HORS 3410 - Horse Breeds and Genetics
3 credit hours
A review of the history of the horse from the prehistoric era to present day with a focus on the development and contributions of horse breeds in the U.S. and state horse industry. Roles of breed associations, principles of genetics, selection of desired traits, genetic abnormalities associated with specific breeds, and matching breeds to disciplines discussed.
HORS 3430 - Horse Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 1110 or ANSC 1410 or approval of instructor. Scientific principles relevant to production requirements of horses as related to behavior, exercise physiology, reproductive physiology, growth, age, and clinical support. Facilities management, marketing, legal aspects of horse ownership, and career opportunities covered. Lecture/lab.
HORS 3900 - Horses and Horsemanship
3 credit hours
Basic requirements of horse ownership, care and associated expenses, inherent risks and safety around horses, and resources available in the horse industry. For non-horse-science majors. Lecture/lab.
HORS 4040 - Equine Event and Facility Management
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 3040 or ANSC 3440 or approval of instructor. Fundamentals of managing equine and other livestock events and facilities covered. Involves active participation in preparing for and conducting equine events held on campus. Lecture/lab.
HORS 4090 - Equine Reproduction and Breeding
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 2110 or HORS 3040 or HORS 3430 or approval of instructor. Reproductive anatomy and physiology of the stallion and mare as they relate to modern breeding practices. Vocational training in semen handling, artificial insemination, and neonatal care. Two hours lecture and two hours laboratory each week.
HORS 4170 - Equine Industry
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: AGBS 1210 or AGBS 3130 and HORS 3040 or approval of instructor. Operational strategies and management issues facing the equine enterprises. Financial, legal, and taxation issues pertaining to the U.S. and international equine industry. Lecture/lab.
HORS 4400 - Advanced Horsemanship-Equitation
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: HORS 2400 and HORS 3400 and approval of instructor. Coordination and refinement of skills from previous horsemanship courses. Understanding, recognizing, and producing longitudinal flexion in the horse. Collection, extension, and stride control. Two-hour lecture and two-hour laboratory each week.
HORS 4440 - Equine Nutrition and Feeding
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: HORS 1110 and HORS 2110 or HORS 2400 and CHEM 1020/CHEM 1021 or CHEM 1120/CHEM 1121 with grades of C- or better, or approval of instructor. Equine digestion and utilization of nutrients, appropriate feeds and feeding management, and diseases with a nutritional component. Nutrient requirements for the horse at various stages, including maintenance, reproduction, growth, performance, age, and clinical support discussed.
HORS 4450 - Techniques of Teaching Horsemanship
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: HORS 2400, HORS 3400, and HORS 4400 or approval of instructor. Development of communication, evaluation, and presentation skills for teaching horsemanship. Two-hour lecture and two-hour laboratory each week.
HORS 4460 - Behavior and Training of Horses
4 credit hours
Prerequisites: HORS 2400, HORS 3400, HORS 4400, and approval of instructor. The psychology, theory, and practice of training and behavior modification in horses. Students assigned a project horse for the semester. Two hours lecture and four hours laboratory per week.
HORS 4470 - Advanced Western Competition
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: HORS 2480 and HORS 4400. Preparation for students interested in competing in a variety of western horse show events such as trail, pleasure, reining, cowhorse, horsemanship and showmanship; understanding of rules, scoring, performing, and preparing for each event. Two hours of lecture and two hours of lab per week.
HORS 4540 - Equine Assisted Therapy
3 credit hours
Focuses on the effective modality of the horse/human bond as it relates to various forms of equine-assisted therapy with an emphasis on therapeutic riding for people with disabilities. Management of a NARHA-approved therapeutic program and instructor certification also covered. One hour classroom lecture, online, and experiential learning components.
HORS 4545 - Equine Assisted Activities and Therapies II
3 credit hours
In-depth education for equine assisted activities and therapies (EAAT), including business planning and administration, lesson planning and structure, and equine selection and management. Offers preparation for those seeking a career within EAAT services and organizations. Two one-hour lectures and one two-hour laboratory per week.
HORS 4550 - Equine Exercise Physiology
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 2400 or approval of instructor. Applied aspects of equine exercise physiology, including physical, physiological, metabolic and mental adaptation to athletic training, exercise metabolism, thermoregulation, biomechanics of movement, effects of surface and footing, common unsoundnesses observed during training and competition, exercising testing, and an overview of shoeing for performance.
HORS 4580 - Advanced Judging of Horses
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: HORS 2480. Systems of judging for current horse show disciplines and exercises for students who aspire to become professional judges. Ethics, contracts with management, and procedures for becoming a judge are part of focus.
Agribusiness and Agriscience
Animal Science
ANSC 1401 - Introduction to Animal and Veterinary Sciences
3 credit hours
Focuses on the introduction and overview of the animal and veterinary sciences disciplines. Reproduction, breeding and genetics, nutrition and feeding, animal health, management, and products processing and marketing of beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, goats, swine, poultry, horses, and companion animals included.
ANSC 1410 - Introduction to Animal Science
3 credit hours
Overview of the science, production, and management of domestic animal species, including beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, goats, swine, poultry, horses, and companion animals. Topics include reproduction; breeds, breeding, and genetics; nutrition and feeding; animal health; management; and products processing and marketing.
ANSC 1411 - Introduction to Animal Science Lab
1 credit hour
Focuses on applied learning concepts presented at the introductory animal science level. Topics include livestock, poultry, and companion animal breed identification; animal nutrition, feeds, and forages; reproductive science and management techniques; animal breeding and genetics; and basic experiential aspects of beef cattle, dairy cattle, swine, sheep, goats, horses, poultry, and companion animal production and management.
ANSC 3000 - Careers in Animal and Veterinary Science
2 credit hours
Prerequisite: Sophomore standing. Explores career opportunities in various areas of animal agriculture, allied fields, and some non-traditional career paths in the animal and veterinary sciences.
ANSC 3310 - Animal Care and Welfare
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: ANSC 1410 or permission of the instructor. Applied aspects of animal care and welfare, including physical condition, feeding, proper housing, and environmental adaptation of animals to human interaction.
ANSC 3420 - Animal Breeding and Genetics
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410; BIOL 1110/BIOL 1111, BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121; junior-level classification or higher. Basic principles of genetics, crossbreeding, inbreeding, and molecular genetics. Animal breeding topics include use of quantitative traits, prediction of breeding value, methods of selection, and genetic evaluations including genomic-enhanced selection. Offered fall only.
ANSC 3440 - Livestock Management
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410; junior or senior standing. Management practices for farm animal species. Practices include animal handling, restraint techniques, feeding, milking, castrations, identification methods, and herd health problems. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 3450 - Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: BIOL 1110/BIOL 1111, BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121; ANSC 1410; junior or senior level. The parts, functions, and anatomical relationships of various organs and systems of domestic animals. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 3470 - Beef Cattle Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410; junior-level classification or higher. Management practices essential for economic beef production including breeding, feeding, and herd health. Purebred, commercial, stocker, feedlot, and processing segments evaluated. Lecture/lab. Offered fall only.
ANSC 3480 - Swine Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410; junior-level classification or higher. Understanding management of the pig's environment and genetics to maximize profits. Includes nutrition, reproduction, genetics, housing, herd health, and management practices. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 3500 - Small Ruminant Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: ANSC 1410. The study of efficient sheep and goat production and management in the U.S. Topics include genetics and selection, reproduction, health and parasite control, nutrition, forages and grazing management, and product quality and marketing. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 3540 - Dairy Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: ANSC 1410; juniors and seniors only. Feeding and management, ruminant digestion, physiology of milk secretion, production testing and official records, sanitary regulations, handling and marketing of raw milk. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 3550 - Animal Feeds and Feeding
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410/ANSC 1411; junior-level classification or higher. Focuses on practical application of nutrition to the feeding of domestic animal species. Topics include identification and characteristics of common feedstuffs; computer ration formulation procedures; life cycle nutritional management of beef cattle, dairy cattle, swine, small ruminants, poultry, and companion animals; feed stuff composition analysis procedures; feed processing, evaluation, and grading; feed control laws; and nutrition research methodology.
ANSC 3710 - Rabbit Production
3 credit hours
Principles of rabbit production and management focused on the commercial, show, and pet sectors. Topics include rabbit breeds and genetics; nutrition and feeding; reproduction; management; health and diseases; and rabbit products.
ANSC 3810 - Milk Processing and Marketing
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PSCI 1030/PSCI 1031 or CHEM 1010/CHEM 1011 and CHEM 1020/CHEM 1021, or CHEM 1110/CHEM 1120. Biological, chemical, and physical properties of cow's milk and its value as an animal food source; techniques of processing and marketing; governmental regulations; laboratory testing. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 4260 - Behavior of Domestic Animals
3 credit hours
Behavior aspects of raising and managing domestic animals to include equine, swine, goats, cattle, sheep, dogs, and cats. Communication, ingestive, sexual, social, aggressive, and abnormal behaviors emphasized. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 4410 - Animal Nutrition
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410; CHEM 1020/CHEM 1021 or CHEM 1120/CHEM 1121; junior-level classification or higher. Advanced study of the processes of digestion and nutrient utilization in domestic animal species. Topics include monogastric and ruminant digestive anatomy and physiology; carbohydrate, lipid, protein, vitamin, and mineral utilization.
ANSC 4430 - Internship in Animal Science
3 to 6 credit hours
Prerequisite: Approval of instructor. In-depth practical experience in a specific area of animal science pertinent to the individual's interest. Students work with producers and agencies that have agreed to cooperate in the program and to provide adequate salary and guidance.
ANSC 4470 - Advanced Beef Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410 and ANSC 3470 or approval of instructor. In-depth analysis of various systems of beef production. Extensive field trips to cow-calf, feedlot, stocker, and purebred operations. Offered Spring only.
ANSC 4490 - Livestock Evaluation
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: Approval of instructor. Comparative evaluation of beef cattle, swine, sheep, and horses. Develops defense of placing through an organized set of reasons involving terms describing the animal's characteristics. Importance of these characteristics to the animal function stressed. Lecture/lab.
ANSC 4500 - Reproductive Management Techniques for Livestock
1 credit hour
Prerequisite: ANSC 1410; junior or senior standing. Training in artificial insemination (A.I.) techniques for livestock species, including certification in cattle A.I. Includes study of estrous synchronization methods and embryo transfer. Lecture and lab activities.
ANSC 4510 - Domestic Animal Reproductive Physiology
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410; BIOL 1110/BIOL 1111, BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121; junior-level classification or higher. Advanced study of the anatomy, physiology, and endocrinology of reproduction in domestic animal species. Topics include male and female reproductive anatomy, hormonal control of reproductive processes, reproductive development, the estrus cycle, male physiology, and lactation. Current techniques to control animal reproduction described. Offered Spring only.
ANSC 4520 - Companion Animal Management
3 credit hours
A comprehensive study of dog and cat management. Topics include canine and feline history; selective breeding; functional anatomy; reproductive physiology and management; nutrition and feeding management; diseases and health management; behavior, communication, and training. Service role of the dog and cat highlighted.
ANSC 4860 - Meat Science and Technology
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: ANSC 1410 and sophomore-level classification or higher. Selecting, inspecting, grading, fabricating, packaging, preserving, and cooking red meat products. Other topics include anatomy, structure, and composition of muscle, food safety, and microbiology. Offered Spring only.
ANSC 4900 - Undergraduate Research in Animal Science
1 to 3 credit hours
Prerequisite: Junior or senior standing. Faculty-student collaboration to gain independent research experience in an animal science discipline area.
Plant and Soil Science
PLSO 1101 - Introduction to Ornamental Horticulture
3 credit hours
Ornamental horticulture from the scientific basis to commercial operations and management systems. Emphasis on the role of horticulture in everyday living through the introductory study of growing, maintenance, and utilization of plants to benefit people and the environment. Topics include basis of plant science and history, scope, and nature of ornamental horticulture including coverage of such diverse topics as production, craftsmanship, and business management skills.
PLSO 1610 - Elements of Plant Science
3 credit hours
Fundamental plant processes; plant tissues, structures, environment, growth, development, reproduction, and propagation. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 3330 - Field Crop Production
3 credit hours
Economic importance, adaptation, origin, and history; botanical characteristics; cultural methods, uses, breeding, and pests of field crops. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 3340 - Fundamentals of Soil Science
3 credit hours
Introduces soil science with emphasis placed on soil physical, biological, and chemical properties. Relates soil conditions to land use applications, plant growth, and environmental quality. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 3350 - Soil Fertility and Fertilizer
3 credit hours
Fundamentals of managing plant nutrients in soils for crop, horticulture, and other plant production. Nutrient requirements, nutrient availability in soils, soil acidity and liming, organic and inorganic fertilizers, and environmental effects of fertilizers. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 3360 - Irrigation and Drainage
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 3340. Comparative evaluation and interpretation of irrigation and drainage systems; water supply development; interrelationships of the environment and plants; scheduling irrigation; examination of economic and legal factors. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 3370 - Soil Analysis
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 3340. Analysis of soils in laboratory. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 3600 - Horticulture in Our Lives
3 credit hours
Emphasis on the role of horticulture in everyday living, through principles of growing plants in the home, floral design, home landscaping, and gardening. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 3630 - Agroforestry
3 credit hours
Culture, conservation, management, and utilization of forest stands. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 3640 - Woody Landscape Plants
3 credit hours
Distribution, characteristics, relationships, and adaptation of native and exotic trees shrubs, and vines for landscape use. One-hour lecture and four-hour lab.
PLSO 3660 - Vegetable Gardening
3 credit hours
Principles of home and commercial vegetable production; adaptation, culture, fertility, diseases, and insects of vegetables. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 3670 - Fruit Production
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or 4 hours of biology. Introduces art and science of fruit production in the United States. Focuses on temperate fruit production, but also includes a general overview of citrus production. Conveys a general understanding of fruit production in the United States including propagation, orchard management, pollination, harvest, cultural practices, pests, and trends in the industry.
PLSO 3700 - Fundamentals of Precision Agriculture
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610. Fundamental concepts and principles of site-specific farming, current technology, and its capabilities and limitations in precision agricultural practices.
PLSO 3850 - Wine Science and Industry
3 credit hours
(Same as FERM 3850.) The science and marketing of wine, including grape production, fruit processing, and fermentation technologies. Explores wine marketing in Tennessee, the U.S., and the world. Student must be 21 years of age to enroll. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4000 - Agroecosystems Remote Sensing Using UAS
3 credit hours
Multidisciplinary course to train students on the key concepts of agricultural remote sensing using unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). Precision agriculture and remote sensing concepts and the use of some open-source image processing software for analyzing UAS-based remote sensing data.
PLSO 4200 - Fruit and Vegetable Marketing
3 credit hours
(Same as AGRI 4200.) Prerequisite: BIOL 1030/BIOL 1031 or CHEM 1010/CHEM 1011 or CHEM 1020/CHEM 1021 or CHEM 1110/CHEM 1111 or CHEM 1120/CHEM 1121 or PSCI 1030/PSCI 1031 or approval of instructor. Basic biochemistry of respiration, handling techniques and practices, quality assessment and marketing of fruit and vegetable crops. Both domestic and international marketing of fruit and vegetable products discussed. Examines the economic impact of improper handling on both the local producer and the end user.
PLSO 4300 - Plant Protection
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or 4 hours of biology. Principles of protecting crop plants from damage by weeds, insects, diseases, and other biotic factors. Pest control by chemical, cultural, and biological methods with an emphasis on integrated pest management.
PLSO 4310 - Forage Crops
3 credit hours
Adaptation, distribution, establishment, management, culture, and utilization of forage legumes and grasses. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4320 - Plant Physiology
4 credit hours
(Same as BIOL 4500.) Prerequisites:BIOL 1110/BIOL 1111, BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121, CHEM 1020/CHEM 1021, PLSO 3340. Plant mineral nutrition, photosynthesis, growth, development, and metabolism at the cellular and whole plant levels. Three hours lecture and three hours laboratory.
PLSO 4330 - Turf Management
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121 or PLSO 1101. Establishment and management of turf grasses for lawns, golf courses, and parks. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4340 - Genesis of Soil Landscapes
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 3340 or instructor approval. The co-evolution of soil landscapes, important morphological soil properties, and influence of geologic and geomorphic settings on soil development. The role of water in the development of soil horizons. Factors and processes of soil genesis. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 4350 - Soil Survey and Land Use
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 3340 or instructor approval. Soil properties used to determine the suitability of soils for various uses.Tasks and reports involved in soil survey. Methods of soil evaluation and interpretation. Use of electronic database for land use decisions. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 4370 - Soil and Water Conservation
3 credit hours
History of soil conservation/soil problems in ancient civilizations. Conservation practices with respect to topsoil, soil productivity, and fertility. Land management practices for soil and water conservation. Current issues in soil and water conservation and environmental sustainability. Lecture/Lab.
PLSO 4380 - Interior Landscaping
3 credit hours
Principles and practices of designing, installing, and maintaining landscapes in malls, public buildings, and other indoor environments. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4390 - Urban and Sports Turf Soils
3 credit hours
Describe, design, manage, and evaluate urban and sports turf soils. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4500 - Agroecology
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: PLSO 1610 or 4 hours of biology. Theories of agroecology; focuses on sustainable agricultural practices and concepts. The impact of specific agricultural technologies and land use practices on the productivity of agricultural ecosystems, environmental quality, and human health. Examines the environmental science and agronomy of both conventional and alternative sustainable practices including benefits and limitations. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4610 - Arboriculture
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121. The culture of trees, shrubs, and vines in the landscape. Planting, transplanting, fertilizing, irrigation, pruning, problem diagnosis, and damage repair included. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4620 - Greenhouse Management
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121. Analysis of soils, fertilizers, irrigation techniques, container preparation, ventilation, growth regulation, and carbon dioxide enrichment for greenhouse operation. Two-hour lecture and two-hour lab.
PLSO 4630 - Floriculture
3 credit hours
Propagation and other cultural practices for the production and maintenance of plants and flowers in the home. Two-hour lecture and two-hour lab.
PLSO 4640 - Landscaping
3 credit hours
Application of the principles of design, the use of proportionate-sized woody landscape plants, and other practices to produce low-maintenance-cost landscapes. One-hour lecture and four-hour lab.
PLSO 4660 - Nursery Management
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121. Principles and practices of nursery management as a business. Nursery administration, financial management, and marketing. Cultural management of field- and container-grown nursery plants. Lecture/lab.
PLSO 4670 - Plant Propagation
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121. Anatomical features and physiological principles involved in propagating plants from seed and by division, cutting, budding, and grafting. Use of growth regulators and environmental factors. Two-hour lecture and two-hour lab.
PLSO 4680 - Internship in Plant and Soil Science
3 to 6 credit hours
Prerequisite: Approval of instructor. Practical experience in a specific area of agronomy, horticulture, or soils. Classroom material related to practical application.
PLSO 4690 - Crop Ecophysiology
3 credit hours
Focuses on crop/plant physiology and crop/plant-environment interaction. Topics include plant canopy architecture, plant root morphology, physiology of growth and yield, photosynthesis and crop yield, source-sink relationships and crop yield, carbon dioxide and crop yield, physiology of drought in crop plants, and physiology of mineral nutrition.
PLSO 4730 - Soil Physical Properties
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: PLSO 3340; MATH 1010, MATH 1530, or MATH 1710; junior or standing level. Study of concepts related to soil physical properties and processes important for crop productivity and environmental quality. Topics include soil water content and energy, water infiltration, transport of solutes, gas, and heat.
PLSO 4750 - Agricultural Biotechnology
3 credit hours
Prerequisites: BIOL 1110/BIOL 1111, BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121, BIOL 3250/BIOL 3251; PLSO 1610. Introduces the process and reasoning behind the human manipulation of plant and animal species for agricultural purposes. Focuses on plant biotechnology with an introduction to animal biotechnology. Topics include plant tissue culture, plant cell transformation, general molecular biology techniques, and molecular marker-assisted breeding techniques. Three hours lecture and two hours lab.
PLSO 4760 - Herbs, Spices, and Medicinal Plants in Our Lives
3 credit hours
Prerequisite: PLSO 1610 or BIOL 1120/BIOL 1121. The history, traditional uses, biological basis, botany, cultivation, and applications of specialized plants used as culinary herbs, spices, and in medicine.
